Spaniards v. Incas and the Fall of the Inca Empire

by

Shannon N. White

At the time of the Spanish conquest of what is now Peru, the empire that the Incas had built up was the largest and most sophisticated to be found in the New World. Before Pizarro's capture of the Inca emperor, Atahualpa, there had been little contact between the new and old worlds of Europe and the Andean region. However, once the contact was made there was no stopping the destruction that quickly followed. In the footsteps of Cortés, Francisco Pizarro and the men who followed him managed to bring about the overthrow of an entire civilization in just seven short years (Guilmartin 41).

Europe and Spain Before the Conquest

In order to better understand the impact the Spaniards had on the Inca civilization, one must first see both civilizations as separate entities. To understand their backgrounds is to better realize the full effect such an encounter had. European society in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries can give some background into what sort of mentality the Spaniards were exposed to. Spain itself had been through many problems in the past century or so, not the least of which was chronic famine especially in the kingdoms of Andalusia and Castille (Sale 35). Most of the men that followed Pizarro on his conquest were from Andalusia and the neighboring province of Estremadura (Phillips 13).

As Sale tells us in his book, Europe experienced death on a daily basis. Disease was rampant all over Europe and people died everyday (Sale 34). In Catalonia, a province of Spain, they experienced four attacks of the plague in the fourteenth century and six again in the fifteenth century. "[I]t's population of some 430,000 in 1365 had shrunk to less than 278,000 by 1497" (34). On top of the bubonic and pulmonary plagues, there was also "leprosy, ergotism, scurvy, chorea, smallpox, measles, diphtheria, typhus, tuberculosis, and influenza, every one of which was not just debilitating but potentially deadly" (34).

The nobility of Spain were an extremely privileged class. Even the lowest of nobles, the hidalgos, who enjoyed little more than local prestige and no taxes, was a difficult position to obtain, for there was little room for societal advancement (Phillips 17). Other than the nobility, Spain was mostly a rural society. Their food depended on the labor of those who worked the land, the campesinos. And though they enjoyed comfortable lives, they were not rich by any means (16). Among the men that accompanied Pizarro to the New World, there were many who had been associated with the land. Some others were notaries, accountants, merchants, artisans, and others of that nature (20). The clergy was also important, for Spanish Catholicism was extremely powerful among the people. They were a class all their own and enjoyed many of the privileges of the nobility (19).

The Inquisition was also something that had an effect on the Spaniards, and it also tells us of the influence that the Church had with the monarchs as well as with the peoples of the country. The Catholic Monarchs wanted religious unity in their kingdoms and therefore authorized the Church to conduct an inquisition to weed out any of the unwanted religions from Spain. Together, the Church and the Spanish monarchs formed a kingdom that was extremely Catholic and not very tolerant of other religions.

All of the situations in Europe and especially in Spain help us to realize what the Spaniards that conquered the Incas may have been thinking, where they came from, and the kinds of things that influenced them such as famine, disease, the Church, and lack of social mobility that they faced in their homeland.

The Inca People

The Incas were the most civilized empire in what is now South America at the time of the Spanish conquest and lived a life very different from that of the Spanish. Their empire was extensive, covering the southern part of modern Ecuador, all of Peru, all of Bolivia, and the northern half of what is today Chile (Loprete 33), and it spread out eastward as well (Prescott 1). Cuzco was the center of their kingdom, the name meaning naval (4). Their language was quechua although since they had conquered many surrounding nations, it was not the only language spoken in the empire.

At the head of their vast empire was the Inca, a direct descendant of the Sun. It was their belief that the Sun had sent two of his children, Manco Capac and Mama Oello Huaco "to gather the natives into communities, and teach them the arts of civilized life" Prescott 4). The two were brother and sister but also husband and wife, a custom which assured the purity of the noble blood. The role of Inca was passed down from father to the eldest son of the Inca queen, not the Incas concubines, who herself had been selected from the best of the Inca's sisters. In preparation for the role of Inca, the son was educated in general knowledge, religion, and military tactics (11).

The government was a despotism with the Inca at the the head of the it. He was also the head of the priesthood, commanded the armies and was in charge of all taxes and laws. In effect, the Inca was "the source from which everything flowed" (14). The Inca nobility were also descendants of the Sun (21). And although the nations that the Incas conquered were incorporated into society, even the highest of their nobility could never become one of the Inca nobility. The highest stations, such as the courts, military officials, and the priesthood, were also held by these descendants of the Sun (23). Also, one of the things that aided in holding together their tight knit society was the ayllu which were kinship groups (Hyams 45), and made up the basic social structure of the Inca society (Loprete 34).

Such was the structure of the Inca civilization, but around the time just before the Spaniards arrived, there was an upset the otherwise stable empire. The Inca Huayana Capac wanted to split his empire in two, giving both of his sons an equal share to rule. But neither brother wanted to share, and thus the empire broke out into civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar (Cantarino 139). Atahualpa came out the winner, overthrowing Huáscar, and taking control of his empire. Thus was the situation upon the arrival of the Spaniards in Peru.

Francisco Pizarro and his conquest

Francisco Pizarro was the man mostly responsible for the conquest of the Incas, though he was partnered with two others. They were Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque (Hemming 24). Their primary objective was, of course, riches, christianization being second on their list. Pizarro himself came from poverty and sought all of the things that he never had. And he had heard that the Indians living on the mainland had a fortune in gold and silver. Keeping in mind that fact that there was little social mobility on Spain, it is also probable that Pizarro wanted to obtain the role and riches of a noble that he could never get back home. Too, there was the fact that all of the Indians must be christianized, and because of the presence of Luque it is evident that this was one of their objectives.

In November 1524, Pizarro sailed and failed at his first attempt to enter the empire. Two years later he and his men made yet another attempt to make contact. On this trip they encountered a small raft full of tradesmen, and the ones that did not jump overboard were captured. Three were kept to be trained as interpreters while the rest were set free (Hemming 25). Then, in 1528, the Spaniards landed at Tumbez and made their "cordial" first encounter with the empire (26).

Still not having found the fortune and fame he was looking for, Pizarro made a trip back to Spain in 1528 in order to seek the king's approval of his conquest. While he was there, he recruited men, adventurers that would follow him in his quest for god, gold, and glory. On July 26, 1529, the Queen signed a document giving Pizarro permission to discover and conquer Peru. In this document, Pizarro was named Governor and Captain General of Peru, while Almagro was named commandant of Tumbez and Luque Protector of the Indians (26).

In 1531, Pizarro landed at Tumbez once again and proceeded to march into Peru. Along their march the Spaniards encountered many villages and were generally made welcome in them (Hyams 193). While on the march, Pizarro took note the lack of adult males in residence in the villages. This was due to the fact that Atahualpa had called them for his army (194). Through several inquiries, Pizarro learned of the civil war and the present whereabouts of Atahaulpa, the Inca in power (203). He was apparently in Cajamarca and so Pizarro proceeded to march in that direction (198). On the long march from Tumbez to Cajamarca, Pizarro and his men began recruiting soldiers that were loyal to Huáscar and also some from the nations that the Incas had conquered and that held an animosity toward the empire (206). However, upon finally reaching Cajamarca, the Spaniards found the town deserted (207).

Collision at Cajamarca

Pizarro and his men found the camp where Atahualpa was staying, and upon sending in Hernando Pizarro, Francisco's brother, Atahualpa agreed to meet with the Spanish. Now, he was not ignorant of their ways, nor was their arrival a surprise. in fact he had been expecting them. After several days of making the Spaniards wait, Atahualpa rode to meet them. However, when he arrived at the agreed place there was no one in sight, for they were hiding in order to make a surprise attack. The first person to reveal himself was Vicente de Valverde, a Dominican Friar. Through a translator, he told the Inca Atahualpa that he and his people must convert, and if he refused they would be considered an enemy of the Church and Spain. Atahualpa refused (Hyams 221). His refusal gave Pizarro a perfect reason to begin an attack on the Inca people. They did not practice the true faith and therefore were totally justified in attacking them in the name of Christianity. The Spanish opened fire and attacked the Inca soldiers that were there with Atahualpa (221). In the struggle, Pizarro's men went after the Inca, intending to kill him. But Pizarro had other plans and in saving Atahualpa's life was the only Spaniard injured in the showdown (225). Atahualpa was then captured and taken prisoner (226).

The amazing part of all this is that the Inca had such power and influence over his people that even the civil war and the capture of Atahualpa had little effect on everyday society (227). Aside from the fact that the brothers were divided, things were still running fairly smoothly. Upon his capture, Atahualpa was not treated badly but with respect and was allowed to communicate with his people, including his troops (228). Of course Atahualpa wanted to be free again and decided to make a deal with Pizarro. He agreed to fill a room with gold and silver in return for his release, and they signed a contract to that effect (231). In the meantime, Pizarro had no intention of letting Atahualpa go because he needed his influence over the Inca people to keep order once the Spanish started to take over. Huáscar, who played only a small role in things, was still alive and Atahualpa feared that as long as Huáscar lived, Pizarro might not need him. For Huáscar would make a better puppet ruler than Atahualpa. He feared for his life and thus ordered the execution of his brother Huáscar (232).

The contract was finally filled, but, as can be expected, Pizarro did not fulfill his end of the bargain. He did not free Atahualpa. Under the guise of a possible insurrection among the Inca against the Spanish, Pizarro decided to bring Athualpa up on charges. There were twelve total, the most important of which were attempting to revolt against the Spanish, practicing idolatry, and murdering Huáscar (250). Pizarro and Almagro acted as judges and a defense person was provided for Atahualpa, as was a prosecutor. As even Atahualpa himself expected, he was found guilty and sentenced to be burned (251).

With all due haste, Pizarro decided to execute Atahualpa that night, fearing that the rest of his men may learn that there was no insurrection, and that Atahualpa had been falsely accused. After being lead to the place of execution, Atahualpa begged for his life (253). At this time Valverde, the priest that started the whole thing at Cajamarca, told Atahualpa that if he agreed to convert, he would reduce the sentence. He agreed to be baptized and was garroted instead of burned (254). The day was August 29, 1553. "With him died...the independent existence of a noble race" (254).

The Fall of the Incas

The death of Atahualpa at Cajamarca was the beginning of the end for the Inca people. "With the death of Atahualpa, Peru was to discover what it was like to suffer the dominion of a European hero" (254). The situation went quickly downhill. Pizarro had Toparca, Atahualpa's brother named Inca and used him as a puppet ruler until he died unexpectedly. Manco Capac, Huáscar's brother was then named ruler and also set up as a puppet. Here everything fell apart. Remote provinces of the Incas extensive empire revolted and in some cases even allied with the Spanish against the Incas (259). Lands and crops were neglected and the people experienced a famine they had never known. The Indians, now wise to the Spanish motive of getting out all the gold and silver they could, started looting and hiding it from everyone. Addiction to coca and alcohol were commonplace all over the kingdom (256,257). Disease also played a huge role. Those diseases that had once been running rampant all over Europe in the previous century, were now destroying the lives of hundreds of thousands of Incas. Inflation was terrible. The gold that Pizarro and his men had wanted so badly was everywhere and prices soared. A bottle of wine was $1,700 and a good horse was $7,000. Grain became more valuable than the Spaniards precious gold (257). The great civilization no longer existed.

Francisco Pizarro himself turned out to be an ineffective ruler. He had problems controlling his own men let alone the Indians. Because there were so many disagreements among the Spanish at the time, King Charles of Spain had to step in. In effect, he gave modern Peru to Pizarro and modern Chile to Almagro. However, they still had fights over the Inca capital of Cuzco, and Pizarro finally sent his brother Hernando to confront Almagro. He did just that. He won the city and proceeded to have Almagro garroted. In return for this, Almagro's Inca son and his followers had Pizarro killed.

Although we can see that the Incas obviously existed after the death of Atahualpa, it is also obvious that with his execution came the end of a great civilization. The cultures of the Spanish and Incas clashed to such a great extent that it brought about the demise. The differences in their backgrounds, such as religion, support this. "Spanish Catholicism was by Peruvian standards, atrocious" (260). The Incas could not understand how a religion could justify what the Spanish were doing to their people.

The Peruvians were used to war, but it was a war conducted according to strict rules, it was relatively mild and humane, and victory was wisely and economically used. They now found themselves opposed to a new kind of human being who waged war à outrance, inspired by a terrifying religion which enabled them to use treachery, hypocrisy, cruelty, torture, and massacre in the name of a God of Love; who were indifferent to the suffering they inflicted and superhumanly stoical in bearing suffering which their own conduct entailed for themselves...(260)

Besides the clash of religion there was also the Spaniards greed for gold. As we have seen, Pizarro and most of his men were from the lower classes in Spain and had little to do with such wealth prior to their involvement with the Incas. What better motivation is there for conquering a people without caring for their welfare if not gold and riches? "It must have seemed to these wretched people that they had fallen into the hands of all-powerful devils, for their conquerors were for the most part heartless and, moreover, clearly mad, since they mistook gold for wealth and valued it above the heart's blood of a great nation" (262).

God, gold and glory. These three words are often used to describe the conquest of the natives of the New World, and with the situation of the Incas it could not be more true. Because of these three words, an entire empire of people fell and will never return to their former glory. The Spanish gave little thought to it though. The Indians "were enslaved, tortured, and worked to death to provide the Europeans with gold. They were infected by the newcomers with tuberculosis, measles, and smallpox" (262). They were forced to convert to a religion that they did not believe in. Edward Hyams said it best with his use of an analogy. He compared the Inca civilization to that of a dance where all of the patterns are the same and it continues day to day without faltering or interruption. He says, "the great dance had been their reality; they awoke into the nightmare of chaos" (263). It was a chaos that destroyed to lives that they knew and that would be forever changed.

Works Cited

Cantarino, Vicente. "Conquista en el Nuevo Mundo." Civilización y Cultura de España. Ed. Steve Debow. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.

Guilmartin, John F. "The Cutting Edge; An Analysis fo the Spanish Invasion and Overthrow of the Inca Empire, 1532-1539." Transatlantic Encouters. Ed. Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991.

Hyams, Edward and George Ordish. The Last of the Incas. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963.

Loprete, Carlos A. "Los Incas." Iberoamérica: Historia de su civilización y cultura. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.

Phillips, William D. and Carla Rahn Phillips. "Spain in the Fifteenthe Century." Transatlantic Encounters. Ed. Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991.

Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Peru. New York: Everyman's Library, 1963.

Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Conquest of Paradise. New York: Penguin Group, 1990.